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Morocco shares borders with Algeria in the east and southeast, faces the Atlantic Ocean in the west, and meets the Mediterranean Sea in the north. It's the only African country that has both the Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea touching its shores. If you exclude Western Sahara, which Morocco governs, its size is a bit bigger than California in the United States. Additionally, there are two small Spanish towns, Ceuta and Melilla, on the northern coast of the country.

Most of Morocco is at high elevations, averaging about 2,600 feet (800 meters) above sea level. There are two mountain ranges: the Rif Mountains in the north along the Mediterranean coast and the Atlas Mountains dividing the country. The Taza Gap in the northeast and traditional roads connect the two parts.

The Rif and Atlas ranges were formed millions of years ago by the folding of sediments in the Tethys Sea. The Rif Mountains are linked to the Iberian Peninsula in Europe. They rise abruptly from a narrow coastal plain. Most limestone peaks in the Rif Mountains are over 4,900 feet (1,500 meters), with Mount Tidirhine reaching 8,058 feet (2,456 meters).

The Atlas Mountains consist of three chains. The High Atlas is 460 miles (740 km) long, starting as small hills at the Atlantic edge, rising rapidly to over 6,500 feet (2,000 meters), with Mount Toubkal reaching 13,665 feet (4,165 meters). The Middle Atlas extends northward from the High Atlas, rising to 10,958 feet (3,340 meters). The Anti-Atlas extends southwestward from the High Atlas to the Atlantic.

East of the Rif and Atlas is the Moulouya basin, a semi-arid lowland created by the Moulouya River. Further east are the High Plateaus of eastern Morocco, about 3,900 to 4,250 feet (1,200 to 1,300 meters) in height, connected to landforms in Algeria. The arid regions south and southeast of the Atlas are the northwestern limits of the Sahara, while the narrow transitional band at the mountain base is called the pre-Sahara.

Atlantic Morocco consists of plains of fine sand and coarser deposits. The Sebou River basin in the northwest, between the Rif Mountains and a line from Rabat to Fes, is a large plain, with the Gharb plain as its agricultural center. South of the Rabat-Fes line, between the Atlas and the Atlantic, are high plateaus like the Saïs Plain, the Tadla Plain, the Haouz Plain, and the wide Chaouïa, Doukkala, and Abda plains. The Sous River valley is between the High Atlas and Anti-Atlas.

Morocco's coastline is regular and lacks many natural harbors, making navigation challenging before modern ports were built.

Morocco's mountains get a lot of rain and snow on their slopes facing the North Atlantic, creating many permanent rivers. Morocco has the most extensive river system in North Africa. Most rivers start on the western slopes of the Atlas Mountains or the southern slopes of the Rif Mountains and flow west to the Atlantic Ocean.

The Sebou, about 280 miles (450 km) long, has the largest volume of any Moroccan river, providing nearly half of the country's surface water. The Drâa, Morocco's longest river at around 685 miles (1,100 km), starts in the High Atlas and is usually dry except for its headstreams. Another significant river is the Oum el-Rbia, 345 miles (555 km) long, flowing from the Middle Atlas to the Atlantic.

The Moulouya is the only major river flowing to the Mediterranean Sea, originating in the eastern slopes of the Middle Atlas and flowing about 320 miles (515 km) to its mouth near the Algerian border. The northern slopes of the Rif have several short rivers that also flow into the Mediterranean. Some small rivers start on the dry eastern slopes of the High Atlas and flow into the Sahara, like the Guir, the Rheris, and the Ziz. Although these rivers have small volumes, they have carved deep canyons. Since the 1930s, Morocco's rivers have been gradually dammed for irrigation, hydroelectric power, and flood control.

In the Chaouïa, Doukkala, and Abda plains, there's a dark mud marl soil called tirs. This soil is great for growing wheat and barley when there's enough rain, and it can hold moisture well for summer crops.

Hamri is a light reddish siliceous soil found in the Saïs Plain around Meknes and Fes. It's good for vineyards and can also yield good grain crops, but it doesn't retain moisture well.

Dhess is the main soil in the Sebou basin. It's a sediment-rich alluvial soil, providing the foundation for much of Morocco's modern irrigated farming.

Other important soil types, not as suitable for farming, include Rmel, a sandy soil in the Mamora Forest region east of Rabat and along much of the northern coast, and haroucha, a rocky soil found in Morocco's semi-arid areas.

In places outside the deserts, Morocco's plant life is similar to that of the Iberian Peninsula. There are still extensive forests in the wetter mountain areas, with different types of oak on lower slopes and fir and cedar at higher elevations, especially in the Middle Atlas.

In drier mountain regions, open forests of thuja, juniper, and Aleppo pine are common. The Mamora Forest, rich in cork oak, is found east of Rabat. Eucalyptus, brought in from Australia during the colonial era, was introduced for reforestation. Since gaining independence, the Moroccan government has established large plantations of eucalyptus around the Mamora Forest.

In the rugged highlands south of Essaouira, vast open forests of argan trees are present. Unique to southwestern Morocco, these trees produce valuable cooking oil from their hard fruit.

In Morocco, like in much of the western Mediterranean region, human activity over centuries has significantly altered the natural vegetation. Lower mountain slopes often have a dense cover of maquis, a scrub formation, with a mix of wild olive, mastic tree, kermes oak, arbutus, heather, myrtle, artemisia, cytisus, broom, and rosemary.

In the dry interior fields, the dwarf palm, jujube tree, esparto grass, and Barbary fig (brought from the Americas via Spain in the 16th century) cover vast areas. There's minimal natural vegetation in the desert areas east of the mountains, though the date palm, introduced to Morocco long ago, is widely cultivated in oases.

Large game has been largely eliminated in Morocco since Roman times when lions and elephants were still abundant. Gazelles are occasionally seen in the south, along with mouflons (wild sheep) and fennecs (a type of fox) in the Atlas region. With government protection, the Barbary macaque now thrives in the forests of the Middle Atlas.

However, the most diverse fauna in Morocco today is its birdlife. Notable migratory birds in Morocco include storks, which build nests on city walls and mosque roofs, as well as flamingos, pelicans, and cattle egrets.

Ethnic Gatherings

Morocco's people are mainly Arabs and Imazighen, or a mix of both. Many Imazighen live in the mountainous regions, where they can preserve their language and culture.

Some people are descendants of refugees from Spain who fled during the Christian reconquest in the 15th century. Trade and slavery brought a significant population of sub-Saharan Africans to Morocco, and their descendants now live mainly in the southern oases and larger cities.

Jews used to be a fairly large minority until the mid-20th century, but many left the country after the establishment of Israel and the Arab-Israeli conflict, relocating to Israel, Europe, and North and South America.

Dialects

Arabic is the main language spoken by two-thirds of the population, and Modern Standard Arabic is taught in schools. Tamazight, the Amazigh language, became an official language in 2011 and is spoken by about a third of the people. Many Imazighen also speak Arabic, and Tamazight is taught in schools. French is an important secondary language, and Spanish is widely spoken, with English gaining popularity.

Tamazight speakers are divided into three groups: the Rif people of the Rif Mountains, the people of the Middle Atlas, and the people of the High Atlas and the Sous valley. While there are differences among these dialects, they are generally understandable.

Religion

Islam is the official state religion, and most Moroccans are Sunni Muslims. The royal family, the ʿAlawite dynasty, has ruled since the 17th century, claiming legitimacy through descent from the Prophet Muhammad. Sufism, a form of Islamic mysticism, has followers, and popular religious practices, such as the veneration of saints and visiting tombs, are widespread.

Moroccan law allows freedom of religion, but few non-Muslims live in the country. There is no significant indigenous Christian population, and the Jewish community has been reduced to a few thousand.

Conventional locales

In Morocco, people live in different areas, each with its own way of life. Most folks stay near the coast, where cities and farms are, and they mainly grow grains like wheat and barley. They also raise animals and grow veggies in the summer.

Up in the Rif and Atlas mountains, about one-fifth of the population lives. This is where you find traditional villages, usually on hills. The houses are close together and made of simple materials like stone or mud. They grow crops like grain in the winter and corn and veggies in the summer. Some villages focus on growing nuts and fruits that do well in their local weather.

In the southern desert areas, there are fewer people. Some settlements have the descendants of sub-Saharan Africans. Water is a big deal here, and they often create oases using water from rivers or by bringing it in from the mountains. Dates are a major crop, and they also grow other things like hay and vegetables under the date palms. The villages in these areas are often made of strong mud and are called ksour.

In the past, people used to move around with their camels in the Sahara, but that lifestyle has mostly disappeared due to various reasons like government policies and long droughts.

Urban settlement

About three-fifths of Moroccans live in cities now. Most cities in Morocco have kept their traditional look and charm. Back when the French were in charge, they didn't mess with the old parts of cities, called medinas, surrounded by walls.

Instead of changing these old parts for new stuff, they built new towns next to them. They also moved the important political and business stuff from the middle of Morocco to the coast.

Casablanca, which used to be a small town, got big and busy during this time. Rabat became the main city for government stuff.

Around the 1930s, shantytowns, called "tin can cities", started popping up near big cities and now they're everywhere.

Segment patterns

Morocco's population is growing a bit faster than countries outside Africa but not as much as those in the Middle East and North Africa. Even though it's not growing super fast, Morocco has a lot of people for its size, especially in the best places to live. About one-fourth of the people are under 15 years old.

A while back, many Moroccans went to live in Western European countries to ease the pressure from the growing population. Around the 1980s, about 600,000 Moroccans had jobs and businesses in Western Europe. But even with that, the population issue didn't get much better, and even moving to work in the Persian Gulf during the oil boom didn't help much.

Economy

Like many African countries that used to be colonies, Morocco relies a lot on selling natural resources for money.

Nowadays, other important parts of the economy are things like tourism and telecommunications.

Together, these modern parts make up more than two-thirds of the money the country makes, even though they only need about one-third of the people to work in them.

Since the 1980s, the Moroccan government has been working hard to change and improve the economy. They've sold things that used to be owned by the government, changed the money's value, and adjusted how prices work to help local businesses.

In 1999, the government even made a fund to give small businesses a boost and make them more competitive.

Morocco has beautiful beaches, lots of sun, different kinds of places to visit, and a rich cultural history. The government is actively working to make the most of these things to attract tourists.

Farming, ranger service, and angling

Morocco has a bunch of useful resources. With lots of land that can be farmed and a mostly nice climate, it's one of the few Arab countries that can grow enough food on its own. In a regular year, Morocco produces about two-thirds of the grains it needs, like wheat, barley, and corn.

The country also sells fruits and veggies to Europe, has a growing wine industry, and is expanding crops like cotton, sugarcane, sugar beets, and sunflowers. They're trying out newer things like tea, tobacco, and soybeans, especially in the fertile Gharb plain.

Morocco is working on improving its irrigation to water over 2.5 million acres of land. But the risk of not having enough rain is always there, especially for the grain fields, which depend a lot on how much it rains each year. Usually, drought happens in Morocco every third year, and that makes it hard for farming to grow.

People raise a lot of sheep and cows in Morocco, enough to meet their own needs for meat and dairy.

The forests in Morocco, covering about a tenth of the land (not counting Western Sahara), are pretty valuable. They get a lot of timber from the Middle and High Atlas forests. The eucalyptus trees help make Morocco self-sufficient in charcoal, which is used a lot for cooking. Eucalyptus is also used for making paper, which Morocco exports, along with cork from its oak forests.

Morocco has rich fishing grounds off its west coast, but they don't have the modern boats and facilities to get the most out of it. A big part of a deal with the European Union in 1996 was about fishing rights, where the EU pays Morocco to let their boats, mostly from Spain, fish in Moroccan waters.

Assets and force

By getting control of Western Sahara, Morocco now has about two-thirds of the world's phosphate reserves, which are used to make fertilizers and other things. However because phosphate prices worldwide are low, production has slowed down.

They also have minerals like iron ore and coal, mainly for their own use, and export small amounts of barite, manganese, lead, and zinc.

One big problem is that Morocco doesn't have much energy of its own. They've tried looking for oil, but it hasn't worked out well. They do have some natural gas, but they mainly have to bring in most of their energy, especially crude oil, which they refine locally. The country mostly uses thermal power plants to make electricity.

Assembling

Manufacturing makes up about one-sixth of the country's economy and is getting more important.

There are two main parts of Morocco's industries: turning raw materials into things to sell abroad and making things for people in the country to use.

A lot of these industries started during the time when the country was a colony. Back then, the government was in charge, and they mainly focused on making things in the country instead of buying from other places.

But since the 1980s, the government has been selling off the things they own and encouraging new businesses to start, including ones from other countries.

One big part of the industry is turning phosphate into fertilizers and acid to sell to other countries. They also process food, like canning fish and veggies for export and making flour and sugar for people in Morocco. Making clothes and textiles using locally grown cotton and wool is another important way the country makes money.

Morocco doesn't have a big iron and steel industry, but it still makes a lot of what the country needs.

Money

Morocco's main bank, called Bank al-Maghrib, plays a big role in the country's money system. It takes care of the Moroccan dirham, manages the country's foreign money, controls how much money is available, oversees the government's special lending groups, and looks after the commercial banks.

The Casablanca Stock Exchange has become more active because of selling off parts of big state-owned projects. This stock exchange started in 1929, is one of the oldest in Africa.

Exchange

Morocco has been working to sell more things abroad and control what it buys from other countries, and it's starting to work with a smaller yearly trade deficit.

By the 1990s, Morocco also lowered its foreign debt a lot. The three main things they sell the most are farm products (like fruits and veggies), partly-made goods and stuff people use (including clothes), and phosphates and things made from them. They buy things like partly-made goods and machines, crude oil, and food.

Morocco does a lot of trade with the EU, which is its biggest trading friend. Because trading with Europe is so important, in the 1990s, Morocco worked out a formal relationship with the EU, including a deal to create a free trade area over time.

They also made other trade deals to not rely too much on Europe, like an agreement with countries in the North American Free Trade Agreement and some one-on-one deals with other countries in the Middle East and North Africa. In 2004, they signed a Free Trade Agreement with the United States.

Administrations

Services, which include government and military spending, make up about a quarter of Morocco's economy.

The government spends a lot, and even though they're trying to sell some of their stuff to private businesses, half of what they spend is still on government stuff.

Since the mid-1980s, tourism and related services have become a big part of Morocco's economy and, by the late 1990s, became the biggest source of money from other countries.

The government put a lot of money into developing the tourist industry, giving loans and tax breaks. They also directly invested in the service sector, but since the mid-1990s, they started selling off these investments.

Every year, a few million visitors come to Morocco, mostly from Europe. Some also come from Algeria, the United States, and East Asia, mainly Japan.

Work and tax collection

About one-third of people work in farming, another third work in mining, manufacturing, and construction, and the rest are in jobs like trade, finance, and services.

There's also a big group of people who work informally, like street vendors and domestic workers, who don't have stable or well-paying jobs.

A lot of people don't have jobs, and the official number is about one-fifth of the workforce. But many think the real number is higher, especially among people with college degrees who can't find jobs in their field.

Morocco has a few workers' unions, with the biggest one having around 700,000 members. This union is connected to an international group of free trade unions.

Most of the country's money comes from taxes. They tax individuals, companies, goods and services, and things like tobacco and oil products.

Transportation and broadcast communications

Morocco has a well-organized road network connecting different parts of the country. It was established during the colonial period and has been consistently maintained and expanded since then.

The railway system links the main cities in the north, and there are ongoing efforts to create new rail connections, along with improved roads, reaching El-Aaiún (Laâyoune) in Western Sahara.

Morocco has about two dozen ports along its long coastline, with Casablanca handling about half of the total port tonnage. Other important ports include Tangier, Safi, Mohammedia, Agadir, Nador, Kenitra, and El Jorf Lasfar.

The country has around a dozen airports that can handle large aircraft, with the main international airport near Casablanca. The state-owned Royal Air Maroc airline provides regular services to Europe, North America, the Middle East, and West Africa.

In the late 1980s and early '90s, there was a significant expansion and modernization of the telecommunications system, resulting in a substantial increase in internal phone lines and improved international communications. In 1996, the state-owned telecommunications industry opened up to privatization, allowing private investment in the retail sector while the state retained control of fixed assets.

In 1998, Maroc Telecom was created by the government, offering phone, mobile, and internet services for the country. Satellite dishes are commonly seen on houses, indicating that Moroccans from various backgrounds have access to global telecommunications.

The Internet has gained popularity in Morocco, with major institutions having direct access, and individuals connecting through telecommunication "boutiques", similar to internet cafes in many Western countries, and home computers.

Protected system

Morocco operates as a constitutional monarchy with two governing bodies. According to the constitution established in 2011, political authority in Morocco is shared between the hereditary ruler and an elected two-chamber parliament, consisting of the House of Councilors (upper chamber) and the House of Representatives (lower chamber). The executive branch is led by a prime minister.

Despite having a constitution, a parliament, and several active political parties, the ruler continues to wield significant political power. He can enact laws, select the prime minister from the largest party in parliament, and approve government appointments. The ruler also maintains absolute control over religious matters, the military, and national security policy.

The ruler's extensive authority in political affairs has been a topic of intense discussion and criticism. Since the mid-1990s, efforts have been made to implement political reforms aimed at strengthening representative institutions, enhancing the authority of the parliament and cabinet, increasing political participation, and limiting the ruler's influence on political matters. These changes were prompted by pressure from both internal opposition groups and external entities.

In July 2011, Moroccan voters approved a new constitution proposed by King Muḥammad VI. The new constitution expanded the powers of the parliament and the prime minister but retained broad authority for the king over all aspects of government. It also included a new section promoting social diversity in Morocco and recognized the Tamazight language as an official language.

Neighborhood government

In Morocco, local government is organized into various tiers, all officially under the Ministry of the Interior. At the top are 16 regions, further divided into several dozen provinces and urban prefectures, each overseen by a governor appointed by the king.

Beneath this second level are local districts and areas, led by district leaders. The fourth level includes regional groups and self-governing urban centers, managed respectively by local leaders and governors. Lower-level officials are appointed by the Ministry of the Interior or governors.

At each level, there are elected bodies whose main role is to help decide local matters and priorities, such as initiating development projects and determining budget allocations.

In the late 1990s, government policy was moving towards allowing more decision-making power at the local level.

Equity

In principle, the Qurān still serves as the basis for the law, applied by Muslim religious judges (qāḍīs) in matters concerning the personal status of Muslims. Jewish cases are handled by rabbinical courts.

For all other matters, whether involving Muslims, Jews, or others, secular courts apply a legal code inspired by French law. The highest legal authority is the Supreme Court, overseeing a system that includes appellate courts, regional councils, magistrate courts, and, at the lowest level, courts of first instance.

All judges are appointed by the king and are overseen by the Ministry of Justice. However, the legal system has not been immune to calls for change.

Moroccan women, in particular, have sought changes in the Mudawwanah, the code of personal status and family law, aiming to address inequalities in inheritance, divorce, and other issues traditionally favoring men.

In 2004, the parliament introduced a new, more progressive, personal status code.

Political procedure

Members of the new 270-seat House of Councilors are chosen for nine-year terms by local committees, worker's guilds, and professional associations. The 325 members of the House of Representatives are directly elected for five-year terms through a popular vote. The constitution prevents a one-party system, allowing for the existence of multiple political parties.

The 1997 legislative elections marked a significant shift in Moroccan politics. A Democratic Bloc, consisting of a coalition of communist, nationalist, and left-wing parties, secured a majority of seats, forming the first government led by a former opposition group in years. This brought a new dynamic to a previously stagnant political system. The National Entente, composed of three parties previously in government, became the largest opposition.

The Ministry of the Interior and security forces hold considerable power in the political process. Islamist groups continue to be active in politics, providing an ongoing challenge to the government. While some moderate groups were politically integrated after their representatives were elected to the 1997 parliament, radical groups have maintained significant influence, particularly within universities and among unemployed youth, sometimes resorting to violence.

While all citizens have voting rights and equal rights in education, employment, private property, and the right to strike, practical differences persist, especially concerning women. Few women are involved in the legislative or ministerial levels of government. King Muḥammad VI has made efforts to address this by appointing women as department heads and royal advisors.

Security

In Morocco, military service lasts for a year and a half, and the country's compulsory commitment extends until the age of 50. The military includes the Royal Armed Forces, comprising the army (the largest branch), a small navy, and an air force. Other security entities include the National Police Force, the Royal Gendarmerie (mostly responsible for rural security), and the Auxiliary Forces.

Generally, internal security is effective, and instances of political violence are rare. One exception was a terrorist bombing in Casablanca in May 2003, which resulted in numerous casualties.

The UN maintains a small observer force in Western Sahara, where a significant number of Morocco's troops are stationed. The Saharawi group Polisario maintains an active militia of around 5,000 fighters in Western Sahara and has engaged in sporadic conflicts with Moroccan forces since the 1980s.

Wellbeing and government assistance

Morocco has a fair number of doctors and trained healthcare professionals for its population. The government focuses on preventive medicine, increasing the number of clinics and health centers.

However, many people, especially in rural areas, still lack access to these facilities. Additionally, only a small part of the population, including not all urban residents, has access to safe drinking water.

The infant mortality rate is high, and at least one-third of the population faces malnutrition. Common diseases like hepatitis persist, and conditions like schistosomiasis are becoming more common due to increased irrigation.

Lodging

Housing in Morocco varies from traditional to ultramodern. In rural areas, some Moroccans still live in ksour and agricultural villages, where living conditions can be challenging. Efforts by the government and private groups to upgrade and modernize traditional medinas have been made, but access to public utilities in many cities remains limited.

In the past, the government discouraged the development of bidonvilles and spontaneous settlements. However, more recently, it has provided these communities with amenities like electricity and piped water, encouraging residents to improve their structures.

The government, along with private developers, has promoted the construction of new housing units across the country, mainly owned by the middle class. Informal or illegal housing has also emerged on the outskirts of urban areas. The government is exploring ways to regularize this type of housing by bringing it up to an acceptable standard and providing it with basic services, even if after construction has taken place.

Training

Morocco allocates about one-fifth of its budget to education, much of which is used to build schools to accommodate the growing population. Education is mandatory for children aged 7 to 13. In urban areas, most kids attend school, but the overall participation drops significantly on a national scale.

Approximately three-quarters of boys attend school, while only about half of girls do, with these percentages decreasing notably in rural areas. Just over half of children continue to secondary education, including trade and technical schools, and only a few pursue higher education.

Limited school attendance, especially in rural areas, has resulted in a low literacy rate, which is around two-fifths of the population. Morocco has over four dozen universities, higher education institutions, and polytechnics located in urban centers throughout the country.

Prominent institutions include Muḥammad V University in Rabat, the country's largest university with branches in Casablanca and Fes; the Hassan II Agriculture and Veterinary Institute in Rabat, known for its social science research alongside agricultural specialties; and Al-Akhawayn University in Ifrane, an English-language university established in 1995 with contributions from Saudi Arabia and the United States.

Social life

Morocco has been a crossroads of various cultures, influenced by Europe, sub-Saharan Africa, and the Middle East. Over time, different cultural and ethnic groups have migrated through the region, leaving their mark.

Since the eighth century, indigenous Amazigh culture blended with waves of Arab conquerors, bringing the Islamic faith and the significant influence of the Arabic language and culture. The influx of Jewish and Muslim refugees from the Spanish Reconquista in the 16th century added enduring Andalusian qualities to Moroccan culture.

In the 19th century, the impact of French culture grew alongside French political power in North Africa. French culture, including the adoption of the French language, has continued to have a strong influence on Morocco.

In recent times, there has been a renewed interest in Amazigh culture, with some Moroccans actively promoting the study of Tamazight literature and oral traditions through community associations.

Day by day life and social traditions

Daily life in Morocco revolves around home and family. Men often gather at sidewalk cafes, and watching a football match on TV in a local cafe is a popular form of entertainment. In big cities like Casablanca, people enjoy various diversions such as movies, restaurants, and shopping in modern boutiques or traditional outdoor markets (souks) offering a variety of local arts, crafts, and food items.

Morocco's extensive coastline features numerous beautiful beaches, some private but many accessible to the public and easily reachable from cities. Families often spend weekends at the shore, engaging in activities like swimming, picnicking, and sports.

Moroccan cuisine, known globally, uses abundant products from the country's rich agricultural regions. Meat staples include fish, lamb, and poultry, with pigeons considered a delicacy when baked in pastry, known as bastillah. Various vegetables like tomatoes, peppers, onions, and eggplants are commonly used, along with a variety of fruits. Bread, a deep cultural symbol, is a daily staple.

Couscous, a semolina-based pasta served with a meat stew, is a staple and a significant Moroccan dish. Kabobs, salads, and soups are also common. Harira, a hearty lamb soup, is a national specialty, traditionally served during Ramadan. Mint tea is the national beverage.

While Morocco is a wine-producing country, production has decreased in the 21st century due to religious pressures considering alcohol consumption inappropriate.

Moroccans celebrate various popular and religious holidays. Islamic holidays include Eid al-Fitr, Eid al-Adha, and the Prophet's birthday. National holidays include Independence Day and the king's birthday.

Expressions of the human experience

Moroccan literature has continued to grow, incorporating traditional genres like poetry, essays, and historiography, alongside forms inspired by Middle Eastern and Western literary models. French is commonly used in publishing research in the social and natural sciences, while literature and literary studies are published in both Arabic and French.

Moroccan writers such as Mohammed Choukri, Driss Chraïbi, Abdallah Laroui, Abdelfattah Kilito, and Fatima Mernissi publish works in both French and English. Exiled writers like Pierre Loti, William S. Burroughs, and Paul Bowles have brought attention to Moroccan writers and the country itself.

Since gaining independence, there has been a flourishing of painting, sculpture, popular music, amateur theater, and filmmaking. The Moroccan National Theater, established in 1956, presents regular productions of Moroccan and French dramatic works. Art and performances take place throughout the country during the summer months, including the World Sacred Music Festival in Fès.

Moroccan music, influenced by Arab, Amazigh, African, and Spanish traditions, employs various traditional instruments such as the flute (nāy), shawm (ghaita), zither (qanūn), and various short-necked lutes (including the ʿūd and gimbrī). These are often accompanied by lively percussion on the darbūkka (ceramic drum). Internationally renowned traditional Moroccan artists include the Master Musicians of Jajouka, an all-male folk ensemble, and Hassan Hakmoun, a master of gnāwa trance music, a popular spiritual style with roots in sub-Saharan Africa.

Younger Moroccans enjoy raï, a style of straightforward Algerian music blending traditional sounds with Western rock, Jamaican reggae, and Egyptian and Moroccan popular music.

Social organizations

Morocco boasts several excellent museums spread throughout the country. The Batha Museum in Fès, housed in a former 19th-century royal residence, focuses on historical Moroccan art and features an impressive collection of local ceramics.

The Oudaïa Museum, established in 1915 and also known as the Museum of Moroccan Art, is located near Rabat's Oudaïa Casbah. Initially constructed as a private residence in the 17th century, the museum showcases collections of pre-modern Moroccan arts and crafts, much like the Dar El-Jamaï Museum (1920) in Meknès.

Rabat's Archeological Museum (1931) houses an extensive collection that spans Morocco's entire history. Additionally, Morocco is home to various literary societies, research institutions, and archives.

Sports and entertainment

Sports in Morocco historically centered around horsemanship until European sports like football, polo, swimming, and tennis were introduced in the late 19th century. Football is the country's primary sport, especially popular among urban youth. In 1970, Morocco became the first African nation to participate in World Cup competitions.

At the 1984 Olympic Games, two Moroccans won gold medals in track and field events, including Nawal El Moutawakel in the 400-meter hurdles, the first woman from an Arab or Islamic country to achieve this Olympic feat. Tennis and golf have also gained popularity, with Moroccan athletes competing internationally, and the country fielded its first Davis Cup team in 1999.

Media and distributing

In Morocco, the government-operated Radiodiffusion Télévision Marocaine (RTM) is the main radio and television broadcaster, reaching audiences nationwide. Radio programs are available in Arabic, French, Tamazight, Spanish, and English, while television broadcasts are in Arabic, Tamazight, and French.

Additionally, there are private media outlets, including a TV station based in Casablanca and a private radio network in Tangier. The country has around twelve daily newspapers published in Rabat, Casablanca, and Tangier, featuring content in both French and Arabic. Most of these newspapers are affiliated with political parties, while others have ties to or align with the government. Additionally, various periodicals cover a range of professions, trades, academic interests, and hobbies.

Despite the diverse media landscape, the high rate of illiteracy in the country limits readership, making television the primary source for news and information dissemination.

History

This discussion focuses on Morocco since the 16th century, a period when the country resisted external invasions while serving as a meeting point for European, Eastern, and African civilizations. Early inhabitants, the Imazighen (Berbers), initially embraced Christianity or Judaism under Roman rule.

In the late 7th century, Arab invaders brought Islam, gradually influencing the Imazighen. Sunni Islam gained prominence in the 12th and 13th centuries under the Almohad dynasty. The Christian Reconquest of Spain in the later Middle Ages brought Muslim and Jewish refugees to Morocco, adding a Hispanic touch to its urban life.

Despite some coastal enclaves, Europeans failed to establish a lasting presence. In the 16th century, Ottoman invaders from Algeria sought to annex Morocco but were unsuccessful, making Morocco the only Arab country to avoid Ottoman rule.

The Battle of the Three Kings in 1578 marked a decisive victory for Morocco, halting European invasions for three centuries. The 17th century witnessed the rise of the ʿAlawite dynasty, which still governs Morocco today. This dynasty fostered trade and cultural relations across Africa, Europe, and the Arab world, though religious tensions between Islam and Christendom occasionally strained peace.

By the late 17th century, Morocco had firmly established its cultural and political identity as an Islamic government. Mawlāy Ismāʿīl (1672-1727), a strong sultan, used a slave army to unify the country and establish centralized rule. Subsequent rulers often leveraged their status as religious leaders to manage internal conflicts arising from tribal competition.

In the late 18th and early 19th centuries, amid European revolutions and continental wars, Morocco entered a period of seclusion. Just before the modern era, Moroccans and Europeans knew little about each other despite their geographical proximity.

Decay of customary government (1830-1912)

During the French invasion of Algeria in 1830, the Moroccan Sultan, Mawlāy ʿAbd al-Raḥmān (1822–59), sent troops to Tlemcen but withdrew after French conflicts. The Algerian leader Abdelkader sought refuge in Morocco in 1844, leading to conflicts with the French.

The French bombarded Tangier and Essaouira in 1844, defeating the Moroccan army at Isly. The sultan promised to expel Abdelkader from Moroccan territory. When Abdelkader returned, Moroccan forces attacked him, and he surrendered to the French.

After ʿAbd al-Raḥmān's death in 1859, a dispute with Spain over Ceuta's boundaries led to war, resulting in Spain capturing Tétouan. Peace was restored with a payment, Ceuta's border expansion, and the promise to cede another enclave—Ifni—to Spain.

Sīdī Muḥammad, the new sultan, tried to modernize the Moroccan army with little success. His son Mawlāy Hassan I defended independence but faced challenges.

In 1894, Hassan I passed away, and his chamberlain, Bā (Aḥmad ibn Mūsā), ruled until 1901 when the young sultan ʿAbd al-ʿAzīz began his direct rule. ʿAbd al-ʿAzīz embraced European customs, leading to discontent and tribal rebellion.

European powers capitalized on the situation, with France and Britain making agreements in 1904, allowing French influence in Morocco. The Algeciras Conference in 1906 confirmed the sultan's territories but allowed French and Spanish policing in Moroccan ports.

In 1912, overwhelmed by internal strife, the sultan signed the Treaty of Fez, making Morocco a French protectorate while maintaining the sultan's status. The Spanish position in the north, particularly Tangier, retained a distinct administration.

The French protectorate (1912-1956)

In establishing their protectorate in much of Morocco, the French drew upon their experiences in conquering Algeria and establishing a protectorate in Tunisia, considering the latter as a model for their approach in Morocco.

However, there were significant differences. Firstly, the protectorate was established just two years before the outbreak of World War I, which brought about a new perspective on colonial rule. Secondly, Morocco had a longstanding tradition of independence, influenced by Muslim Spain but never subjected to Ottoman rule.

These circumstances, coupled with Morocco's proximity to Spain, created a unique relationship between the two nations. Morocco was distinct from North African countries, having a coastline on the Atlantic, rights granted by the Act of Algeciras, and privileges acquired by diplomatic missions in Tangier.

As a result, the northern tenth of the country, with both Atlantic and Mediterranean coasts, and the desert area of Tarfaya in the southwest adjacent to the Spanish Sahara, were excluded from the French-controlled zone and treated as a Spanish protectorate.

In the French zone, the illusion of the sultan's sovereignty was maintained, but the French-appointed resident general held the actual power, answerable only to the approval of the government in Paris. The sultan operated through newly created divisions staffed by French officials.

The limited role that the Moroccan government (Makhzan) played is evident, as Muḥammad al-Muqrī, the grand vizier during the establishment of the protectorate, retained the same position when Morocco regained its independence 44 years later, even at over 100 years old.

Similar to Tunisia, rural areas were governed by civil controllers, except in certain areas like Fès, where it was deemed appropriate for officials of the rank of general to oversee the administration. In the south, certain Amazigh leaders (qāids), notably Thami El-Glaoui, enjoyed considerable autonomy.

The pre-World War II period

In the time before World War II, General Louis-Hubert-Gonzalve Lyautey, later Marshal, was in charge of Morocco. He had experience in various places and valued Moroccan culture. His approach aimed to keep the local elite intact and rule through cooperation. He placed Mawlāy Yūsuf on the throne, who worked well with the French without losing the respect of Moroccans. They built a new administrative capital in Rabat and a business port in Casablanca, making it a thriving city by 1956.

Despite World War I, development continued, and Lyautey's plan to create new European cities left old Moroccan towns untouched. After the war, Morocco faced issues in the Atlas Mountains and dealt with Abd el-Krim's uprising. In 1926, the French and Spanish subdued the rebellion. In 1927, Lyautey was replaced by a civilian, marking a shift to a more typical colonial administration with legal colonization and increased European influence.

In 1920, Lyautey noted the emergence of a young generation seeking change. By 1926, Moroccans in Rabat and Fès were independently discussing demands for more schools, a new legal system, and an end to the protectorate. After Sultan Mawlāy Yūsuf's death, his son, Sīdī (Muḥammad V), became the new sultan. The French attempted to exploit differences between Arabs and Imazighen, leading to the 1930 Berber Decree, which backfired, fueling Moroccan nationalism.

In 1933, nationalists established Throne Day to celebrate the sultan's anniversary. When the sultan visited Fès the next year, anti-French protests led to an abrupt end to his visit. Soon after, political parties emerged, setting the stage for further developments.

The Spanish Zone

The Spanish protectorate in northern Morocco covered an area from Larache on the Atlantic to beyond Melilla on the Mediterranean. Spain also got a piece of desert land known as Tarfaya in the southwest. In 1934, as the French took control of southern Morocco, the Spanish took Ifni. They appointed a Moroccan royal family member as a symbolic head of state, allowing Spain to manage affairs independently. Tangier had international administration under a representative of the sultan.

In 1940, Spanish troops occupied Tangier but withdrew in 1945 after the Allied victory. The Spanish Zone included Ceuta and Melilla ports and the iron mines of the Rif Mountains, with Tétouan as the capital. Like the French Zone, European-staffed offices were established, and local areas were managed by Spanish officials.

The first area occupied included Larache, Ksar el-Kebir, and Asilah, controlled by former Moroccan official Aḥmad al-Raisūnī. Despite challenges, al-Raisūnī's independence was hard for the Spanish government to endure. In 1913, he retired to the mountains until his capture by Abd el-Krim in 1925. Abd el-Krim established the Republic of the Rif in 1923, but it was crushed by French and Spanish forces in 1926. After his surrender, the Spanish protectorate remained relatively peaceful.

General Franco used Morocco to launch his attack on the Spanish Republic in 1936, recruiting many Moroccan volunteers for the Spanish Civil War. Despite having fewer resources than the French, the Spanish approach was somewhat more liberal, with Arabic as the language of instruction. There was no attempt to divide Amazigh and Arab as in the French Zone. The Spanish Zone became a refuge for nationalists after the French expelled the sultan in 1953.

In 1956, France granted independence to Morocco, and a similar agreement was reached with Spain. The Spanish protectorate ended without the challenges faced by the French. With the withdrawal of Spanish officials, Tétouan returned to being a calm provincial capital. However, the introduction of the Moroccan franc and French-speaking officials brought about difficulties and a rise in living costs in the former Spanish territory.

In 1958-59, changes in the Rif region led to unrest. Tangier also lost some of its previous appeal as a distinct area, with many Europeans and Jewish residents leaving, similar to what happened in the former French Zone. Tarfaya in the southern protectorate was returned to Morocco in 1958, and Spain fully gave up Ifni in 1970, hoping for recognition of their rights to Melilla and Ceuta.

Ceuta, located on the Strait of Gibraltar, and Melilla, further east on the Mediterranean coast, remain Spanish territories on Moroccan land, mostly inhabited by Spanish people. In October 1978, the United States handed over a military base, its last one in Africa, to Morocco in Kenitra.

Freedom of Morocco

During the time of the French protectorate in Morocco, there were positive changes like improved infrastructure, new city areas, and a growing agriculture and industry. However, these developments were mostly controlled by Europeans. The religious aspect saw little progress. While the Sultan's powers were officially under French supervision, they were extensive in theory. The first cabinet, representing various Moroccan groups, was formed under French direction, even including a minister from the Jewish community.

Mubarak Bekkai, a neutral military official, became the prime minister. Although the Sultan had control over ministerial appointments, he retained power over the military and police, also establishing a Consultative Assembly. His son, Mawlāy Hassan, took over the military and smoothly integrated the freedom forces. Despite tensions with France due to the Algerian War, Morocco maintained ties for technological and economic support.

In 1959, a significant political shift occurred with the division of the Istiqlāl into two parts. The main faction, led by Muḥammad ʿAllāl al-Fāsī, and a smaller one, including Mehdi Ben Barka and others, formed the National Union of Popular Forces (UNFP). The original Istiqlāl represented traditional elements, while the UNFP, consisting of younger intellectuals, leaned towards communism with republican ideas. Muḥammad V used these differences to position himself as a mediator above party conflicts. Despite his efforts to establish a parliament, his sudden death in 1961 led to his son, Hassan II, succeeding him.

In 1963, when they finally had elections, the two parts of the old Istiqlāl joined together as an opposition. Another group supporting the king, known as the Front for the Defense of Constitutional Institutions, included a mainly Amazigh regional party against the Istiqlāl. With a kind of personal rule, the king dissolved Parliament after just a year due to a deadlock and became the head of government himself or appointed someone.

In 1970, a new constitution was announced with a one-house council, but it didn't survive a failed army uprising in July 1971. The next year, Hassan announced another constitution, but it was mostly put on hold after another attempted military coup in August, led by Minister of Defense General Muḥammad Oufkir. Oufkir died at the royal palace, supposedly by his own hand, and many suspects, including his family members, were imprisoned.

The 1977 elections, widely seen as fraudulent, gave a massive win to the king's supporters. Hassan's efforts to incorporate Spanish (Western) Sahara into Morocco gained popularity in the early 1970s. Despite mixing attempts to co-opt political opposition with periods of political repression, royal control was maintained.

By the mid-1980s, issues like poor harvests, a slow economy, and the ongoing financial strain from the Western Sahara conflict increased tensions. Riots in Casablanca in June 1981 reflected this. The need for political change became more urgent as international organizations and human rights groups focused on Morocco's troubled internal situation.

The fear of an uprising similar to Algeria's, led by a radical Islamic opposition, concerned the political leadership in the 1990s and into the early 21st century. The government closely monitored the most radical groups. Along with disenchanted urban youth occasionally rioting, Islamist sympathizers tested the limits of new political tolerance.

As a result, the 1990s saw more progress and a sense of individual freedom, although direct criticism of the king and the royal family was still not allowed. Pardons for long-held political prisoners in remote areas signaled a new respect for human rights, while various checks on the power of the police and security forces suggested a closer adherence to the rule of law.

International strategy

Morocco has often followed a different international path compared to its Arab neighbors. During the Cold War, Morocco typically leaned towards Western European powers and the United States, while many other Arab states remained neutral or leaned towards the Soviet Union.

King Hassan played a key role in paving the way for the Camp David Accords in 1978 between Israel and Egypt. He engaged in political discussions with Israel in the 1970s, well before other Arab leaders, and consistently encouraged both Palestinians and Israelis to find a compromise.

Morocco strongly supported the United States during the Gulf War in 1991 and its efforts for peace in the Middle East. Unlike other Arab states, Morocco has maintained connections with its former Jewish residents now living in Israel, Europe, and North and South America.

Morocco's relations with neighboring North African states, especially Libya and its leader Colonel Muammar al-Qaddafi, have not always been smooth. Despite Qaddafi's unpredictable political style, Hassan tried in the 1990s to reintegrate Libya into the Maghribī community.

Tensions with Algeria arose in the mid-1970s due to events in Western Sahara, as Algeria generally opposed Morocco's policies in the region.

Western Sahara

In the mid-1970s, King Hassan actively advocated for Morocco's claim to the Spanish Sahara, using the patriotic cause to garner domestic support. In November 1975, following a UN initiative supporting Sahrawi autonomy, Hassan organized the "Green March", with 200,000 unarmed volunteers crossing the border to secure Spanish Sahara. Spain agreed to relinquish its claim, and the region, now called Western Sahara, was to be jointly administered by Morocco and Mauritania. However, by 1976, Mauritania withdrew, leaving Morocco to contend with the Polisario Front, a Sahrawi guerrilla group supported by Algeria and later Libya.

Hassan proposed a 1981 referendum, but the Polisario Front rejected it. Fighting continued, and by 1986, Morocco controlled two-thirds of the territory. The Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic, in exile, gained recognition from several foreign governments.

Despite improved relations between Morocco and Algeria in 1987-88 and a UN-backed peace proposal in 1988, the Polisario Front's military actions in 1989 led King Hassan to suspend talks. In 1991, a UN Security Council resolution aimed for a decisive solution, calling for a vote to decide if Western Sahara should join Morocco or become independent. Disagreements over the voting list stalemated the process, and by 2001, Morocco was no longer open to a referendum. The issue remains unresolved.

Hassan's last years

As the 1990s came to a close, King Hassan II of Morocco, the longest-serving ruler in the Arab world, worked on modernizing his country's image. He embraced a more progressive stance and brought about changes in politics and governance.

During the 1990s, new political opportunities emerged, leading to the formation of the first opposition government in over three decades. In 1997, opposition groups secured the majority of seats in the lower house, and Abderrahmane Youssoufi, a leader of the Socialist Union of Popular Forces, became the prime minister in March 1998.

Under pressure from human rights organizations, King Hassan II initiated a vigorous anti-corruption campaign. This effort resulted in the removal and, in some cases, execution of corrupt officials. Additionally, more than a thousand political prisoners, some held for nearly 25 years, were released.

Despite these significant political changes, the king retained considerable political power, including the ability to dismiss the government, veto laws, and govern through emergency decrees. King Hassan II also maintained his role as the country's religious leader, cultivating aspects of his public image that garnered widespread support among the rural and urban poor.

Using public donations, he oversaw the completion of a massive $600 million mosque in Casablanca in August 1993. The mosque featured a retractable roof and a striking green laser beam pointing towards Mecca from its towering minaret.

Interestingly, his main adversaries were also found in the religious arena, particularly among Islamic extremists whom he sought to keep in check. Nevertheless, he displayed some flexibility, pardoning political prisoners with ties to religious groups critical of the government in 1994. In December 1995, Abdessalam Yassine, the leader of the banned Islamic organization, the Justice and Charity Group, was released after six years of house arrest.

The rule of Moḥamed VI

When Hassan II passed away in July 1999, his son, Muhammad VI, took over as the leader of Morocco. This led to a lot of discussion and disagreement in the country, especially regarding the government's proposal to give women more access to public life, education, and equal rights in marriage, inheritance, and divorce. This caused tensions between Islamic groups and various organizations, resulting in protests in Casablanca and Rabat.

In 2011, inspired by the movements in the Middle East and North Africa, Moroccan demonstrators called for economic and political changes. There were occasional clashes between protesters and the police during these demonstrations. Responding to the activism, Muhammad pledged to make political changes, such as establishing an independent judiciary and strengthening the role of parliament.

In an attempt to quell the protests, Muhammad proposed a new constitution in June, claiming it would limit his powers and enhance democracy. The constitution increased the authority of the prime minister and parliament but maintained the king's ultimate power in all aspects and control over religious matters, defense, and key policies. In a July referendum, voters approved the new constitution, despite criticism that it didn't go far enough in reforming the political system.

In the parliamentary elections of November 2011, the Justice and Development Party (PJD), a moderate Islamist party, won a significant number of seats. According to the new constitution, Muhammad appointed Abdelilah Benkirane, the PJD leader, as prime minister. The PJD focused on economic issues and anti-corruption measures, maintaining a cooperative relationship with the monarchy.

Although the PJD's popularity grew, it faced challenges, and in 2017, Muhammad dismissed Benkirane. Saadeddine El Othmani, known for his conciliatory approach, was then tasked with forming a new government. Around the same time, the Rif region experienced unrest due to longstanding neglect, leading to protests in Al-Hoceïma. In 2016, a local fish vendor's death sparked demonstrations, highlighting government failures in addressing poverty. The protests were met with force, and the government promised development initiatives.